A Conceptual Proposal for the Behavioral Study of Individual Development and Creativity: The Tree of Behaviors

By Neil K Johnson/AI Assistant  Department of Cognitive Science, University of Chicago

Abstract

The complex relationship between development on the individual plane and creative behavior remains a challenging question for researchers in the field of psychology. The existing theories either account for these issues independently or do not comprise a unified system that could be applied for tracking the behavioral origin of sophisticated human abilities. The purpose of this research is to introduce “The Tree of Behaviors” as a conceptual framework for an integrated behavioral research of development on the individual plane, on the one hand, and creativity on the other. Based on some key postulates of the field of behavioral sciences, developmental psychology, as well as creativity studies, the suggested conceptual model implies that the development of an individual’s behavioral toolkit may be tracked along the structure of a tree’s development, such as roots (biologically innate basis), trunk (habitual-behavioral skills), branches (specialized abilities), leaves (temporary actions), and fruits of creativity (fresh, adaptive outputs).

Keywords: Behavioral development, creativity, conceptual framework, behavioral science, individual differences, learning, skill acquisition, psychological development.

1. Introduction

While remarkable, the human capacity for development and creativity is partially mysterious in its underlying mechanisms. How does an infant grow into a problem-solving, thinking adult? What are the behavioral processes underlying the emergence of novel ideas, artistic expressions, or scientific breakthroughs? Traditional approaches in psychology often compartmentalize these areas, with development being studied under stage theories, creativity under cognitive tests, and behavior under stimulus-response paradigms. Although each gives valuable insights, what is absent is a unified framework that would link the observable behaviors of an developing individual directly to his or her creative potential.

This paper proposes a means to fill this gap through a conceptual tool called “The Tree of Behaviors.” This is a metaphorical approach that offers a structured means through which a individual’s behavior set develops and leads to a creative output as a result of interaction within their environment. Based on behavioral science theory, this approach focuses on a learning process in an observable and measurable way that defines creativity not as an intangible quality, but as a function of a specific behavioral output that results from a well-developed behavioral system.

“The overall argument is quite simple: As a tree grows from a seed, putting out roots, a trunk, branches, and finally fruit, a personal behavioral repertoire can blossom from elemental actions, develop into a foundation of regular behaviors, diversify into specialized behaviors, and, under optimal conditions, bear new and valuable ‘creative fruit.’” This is a very economical yet inclusive conceptual tool for studying the role of operant reinforcement and learning processes in the emergence and ultimate attainment of creativity.

The following sections of the article will go on to explain the theoretical basis behind this framework, break down the parts of “The Tree of Behavior,” its relation to development and creativity, and develop research ideas to study it empirically. Then we can finally go on to consider the general implications this framework has on education, the therapeutic room, and the general development of human potential.

2. Background and Theoretical Foundations

The ‘Tree of Behaviors’ model benefits from the basic principles of a number of key fields of psychological study: namely, behavioral psychology, development psychology, and creativity research. The combining of these findings is essential to an understanding of human functioning.

2.1. Behavioral Psychology: The Foundation of Action

Behavioral psychology, as exemplified in early innovators such as Watson and B.F. Skinner, focuses on understanding behaviors as they relate to and interact within an environmental framework.¹ The underlying principles that behaviors can be learned through interactions within an environmental context (classical and operant conditions) form a foundation in understanding the “Tree of Behaviors.” The theories and work developed by B.F. Skinner in regard to schedules and behaviors in combination and problem-solving and analysis within a behavioral framework provide a deep understanding in regard to understanding behaviors in terms of combination and evolution.² Development in an individually defined fashion is thus a continuous function in terms of acquiring different behaviors and adapting and learning differently in terms of environmental interactions. Creativity can thus further be defined not necessarily as a function or a phenomenon in regard to an internal cognitive framework within stages or an inspiration- or creativity-imbedded function. The “Tree of Behaviors” attempts to bring this understanding under a central umbrella.

2.2. Developmental Psychology: The Unfolding of Potential

Developmental psychology, as exemplified in the theories of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Erik Erikson, aims to study and explain changes that happen systematically in an individual throughout his/her lifetime.³ Although commonly using cognitive or psychosocial stages in their theories, developmental theories convey an important message about the phase-by-phase and cumulative process of human development. Piaget’s theory involving schema and assimilation/accommodation concepts, for example, can be explained in behavioral terms as a function that refines behavioral patterns according to environmental pressures.⁴ Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory emphasizing social interactions and culture in development inevitably points out that there is a role for environmental “soil” in behavioral development.⁵ “Tree of Behaviors” conceptualizes and indicates an important cumulative message about development by depicting a graphical model involving a phase-by-phase strengthening and diversification process of behavioral patterns that are largely shaped by social learning and culture.

2.3. Creativity Research: From Divergence to Integration

Research in creativity has moved from the sole focus of divergent thinking and personality traits to system-level theories that recognize the role of the interplay between personality, domain, and field characteristics.⁶ Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s system-level explanation, for example, views creativity as the product of the interaction of an individual’s talent, the culture domain, and the social field.⁷ Robert Sternberg’s investment theory of creativity illustrates the interaction of six resources: intelligence, knowledge, styles of thinking, personality, motivation, and environment.⁸ While the richness of the phenomena of creativity is effectively captured in such system-level views, the focus of creativity research is sometimes not on the underlying processes of behavorializing these resources but on how the resources can actually interact at the personality, domain, or field levels of analysis.

 "The Tree of Behaviors" attempts to make these processes behavorial, allowing the researcher or analyst to view creativity not simply as an end product or as some sort of cognitive process but rather as the following particularized behaviors of "exploring, experimenting, combining, refining," with the end product of these activities being the production of novel and adaptive "fruit."

2.4. Need for Integration

The difficulty is how to synthesize these highly effective but sometimes divergent ways of thinking. The field of behavioral science provides the methodology necessary for the objective analysis of learning, but has less often emphasized the complex development patterns and the development of highly novel behaviors. Developmental psychology provides the models of development, but less often the details of the behavioral processes. The field of creativity research recognizes the conditions and the nature of the creative act, but does not necessarily elucidate the behavioral basis of the act. The “Tree of Behaviors” provides a model which can incorporate all of these, as a framework in which the behavioral origin, development, and demonstration of human creativity can be explored.

3. The Tree of Behaviors: A Conceptual Framework

The metaphor of the “Tree of Behaviors” offers a broad view concerning the way an individual’s behavioral repertoire develops and creativity emerges. Each part of the tree stands for a specific, yet related, aspect of behavioral functioning.

3.1. The Soil/Environment: Contextual Factors

Before describing the tree itself, it’s crucial to acknowledge the “soil” in which it grows: the individual’s environment. This encompasses all external factors that influence behavior, including:

• Physical Environment: Home, school, workspace, natural settings.
• Social Environment: Family, peers, teachers, mentors, cultural norms, societal expectations.
• Economic and Cultural Resources: Access to education, tools, opportunities, cultural traditions, and values.

The quality and nature of the “soil” profoundly influence the tree’s health, growth rate, and the type of fruit it can bear. A nutrient-rich, supportive environment fosters robust behavioral development, while a harsh or deprived environment can stunt growth or lead to maladaptive patterns.⁹

3.2. The Roots: Basic Behavioral Repertoire and Innate Foundations

The roots of the “Tree of Behaviors” represent the fundamental, foundational behaviors upon which all subsequent complexities are built. These include:

• Innate Reflexes: Primitive, unconditioned responses (e.g., sucking, grasping, startling).
• Early Learned Behaviors: Basic motor skills (e.g., crawling, walking, reaching), elementary vocalizations, and the earliest instances of classical and operant conditioning (e.g., associating crying with comfort, repeating actions that lead to desired outcomes).¹⁰
• Sensory-Motor Schemas: As described by Piaget, these are the earliest patterns of interaction with the environment, forming the initial “building blocks” of understanding and action.¹¹

These roots are essential for anchoring the individual, providing stability, and absorbing “nutrients” (information, reinforcement) from the environment. Weak or underdeveloped roots can compromise the entire tree’s future growth.

3.3. The Trunk: Core Behavioral Systems and Habits

Emerging from the roots, the trunk represents the consolidation of basic behaviors into stable, consistent, and often automatic patterns. These are the core behavioral systems and habits that define an individual’s behavioral “identity” and efficiency.

• Established Routines: Daily habits (e.g., hygiene, study routines, work habits).
• Fundamental Skills: Reading, writing, basic arithmetic, social etiquette, self-regulation behaviors.
• Personality Traits as Behavioral Patterns: Consistent ways of behaving across situations (e.g., conscientiousness as a pattern of organized, goal-directed behaviors; extraversion as a pattern of seeking social interaction).¹² These are not just internal states but observable behavioral tendencies refined through repeated reinforcement.

A strong, sturdy trunk indicates a well-developed set of core competencies and adaptive habits. It allows the individual to navigate daily life efficiently, freeing up cognitive and behavioral resources for more complex tasks. A weak or inconsistent trunk suggests a lack of foundational stability, hindering further development.

3.4. The Branches: Context-Specific Behaviors and Specialized Skills

From the trunk, diverse branches extend, representing the specialization and diversification of an individual’s behavioral repertoire into various domains.

• Domain-Specific Skills: Expertise in particular areas (e.g., musical instrument proficiency, coding skills, athletic techniques, academic subject mastery).
• Social Roles and Flexibilities: Behaviors adapted to specific social contexts (e.g., behaving differently with friends vs. teachers vs. elders).
• Problem-Solving Strategies: Learned approaches to specific types of problems (e.g., scientific method, artistic techniques, engineering design processes).

The branches allow the individual to interact effectively with a wider range of environments and challenges. The number and health of the branches reflect the breadth and depth of an individual’s learned capabilities. A tree with many healthy branches is versatile and adaptable.

3.5. The Leaves: Momentary Behaviors and Actions

The leaves represent the specific, observable behaviors and actions performed in the moment. They are the immediate output of the tree, capturing current interactions with the environment.

• Specific Utterances: A particular sentence spoken.
• Discrete Actions: Pressing a key, making a brushstroke, solving a specific math problem.
• Expressive Gestures: A smile, a frown, a nod.

These are the most directly observable components, the data points that researchers often collect. The health and abundance of leaves reflect the current activity and responsiveness of the tree. They are nourished by the branches, which in turn are supported by the trunk and roots.

3.6. The Fruit: Creative Outputs and Novel Behaviors

The fruit is the ultimate expression of the “Tree of Behaviors”—the novel, adaptive, and valuable outputs that we recognize as creative.

• Innovative Solutions: A new way to solve an old problem.
• Artistic Creations: A unique painting, a compelling piece of music, an original story.
• Scientific Discoveries: A novel hypothesis, an inventive experimental design, a new theory.
• Adaptive Behaviors: Novel responses to unprecedented situations, demonstrating behavioral flexibility and problem-solving beyond routine.

“The fruit” must have a strong foundation (roots), strong core competencies (trunk), and various highly specialized skills (branches). Creativity, in this view, is not some sudden and inexplicable event, but the endpoint of the development of a comprehensive and integratively flexible behavioral system that combines existing ideas in novel ways, often as the environment or inner need for exploration and self-expression demands.¹³ It is the production of novel and adaptive behaviors.

3.7. Growth and Development: The Dynamic Process

The entire tree is in a constant state of growth and adaptation. This dynamic process is driven by:

• Learning and Reinforcement: New behaviors are acquired, and existing ones are strengthened or modified through reinforcement, punishment, and shaping schedules.
• Practice and Repetition: Strengthening connections between behavioral patterns.
• Exploration and Experimentation: Engaging in new actions, testing boundaries, trying novel combinations.
• Environmental Feedback: Information from the environment that guides behavioral adjustments.

This dynamic process ensures that the “Tree of Behaviors” is not static but continuously evolving, adapting, and, under optimal conditions, producing more and varied fruit throughout an individual’s lifespan.

4. Behavioral Underpinnings of Development within the Tree

Viewing development through the lens of the “Tree of Behaviors” highlights the continuous and cumulative nature of behavioral acquisition and refinement.

4.1. From Roots to Trunk: Early Childhood and Habit Formation

In the early stages of growth and development, the main focus or emphasis is on developing strong roots and a strong trunk. Toddlers and young children are totally involved in learning fundamental motor skills, language, or basic behaviors of sharing and taking turns. This phase of human development is highly dependent on or influenced by immediate environment contingencies. Reinforcing attempts at walking, talking, or sharing increases the likelihood of getting more of this behavior, thereby becoming more established “trunk behaviors” out of or in addition to “root behaviors.” Lodging guidelines and responsiveness on the part of the parent provide highly important or “nutritional” elements in this fundamental or trunk level of growth and development.¹⁴ An example of this would be a child being reinforced for independent play or problem-solving, resulting in the growth of a trunk capable of empowering self-efficacy behaviors.

4.2. Trunk to Branches: Skill Acquisition and Specialization

As children move into school age and then into their teens, their development includes tree-like expansion. Starting with the basic skills of the trunk, such as literacy, numeracy, and basic socialization, new, more specific behaviors associated with educational fields of study, hobbies, and groups continue to be gained. Developing a new skill, such as playing a musical instrument, being accomplished at a sport, learning a foreign language, represents expansion. This includes:

• Deliberate Practice: Repeated engagement in specific behaviors with the goal of improvement.¹⁵
• Scaffolding: Guidance from more skilled individuals (teachers, mentors) that gradually fades as the learner becomes proficient.¹⁶
• Differential Reinforcement: Specific behaviors within a skill domain are reinforced, leading to refinement and precision.

“The health of the branches is a symbol of a developing adaptability and a growing capacity to respond effectively to different types of challenges. A student who is actively involved in a host of extracurricular pursuits and in a variety of learning experiences is developing a far richer and more diversified ‘branch system’ than is a student whose world is limited.”

4.3. Dynamic Interaction and Adaptability

“The Tree of Behavior” encourages the interaction of the parts. Environmental changes can impact the growth of additional branches on the tree, or even the fruit that is produced. Getting married or moving to a foreign country, for instance, can stimulate the growth of additional social branches. A challenge to one’s beliefs (trunk) can cause a re-evaluation or reinforcement of those belief systems and subsequent growth of new branches or the reinforcement of the original ones.

5. The Tree of Behaviors and Creativity

Within this framework, creativity is understood not as an abstract trait or a purely cognitive phenomenon, but as a specific, advanced form of behavioral output—the “fruit” of a well-developed and flexibly interacting behavioral system.

5.1. Defining Creativity Behaviorally

From a behavioral perspective, a creative act is a novel and adaptive behavior that is produced under specific environmental conditions, drawing upon existing behavioral repertoires, and often leading to reinforcing consequences (e.g., recognition, problem solution, aesthetic pleasure).¹⁷ It involves:

• Novelty: The behavior or its product is new to the individual, the immediate social group, or the domain.
• Adaptiveness/Value: The behavior or its product serves a purpose, solves a problem, or is aesthetically pleasing.

The “Tree of Behaviors” suggests that creative acts are not spontaneous events but emerge from a rich history of learning, exploration, and behavioral consolidation.

5.2. How “Fruit” Emerges from the Tree

For the “fruit of creativity” to emerge, several conditions related to the tree’s development must be met:

• Strong Trunk (Mastery): Deep mastery of foundational skills and established behavioral routines (e.g., technical proficiency in an art form, profound knowledge in a scientific domain). This mastery allows for efficient execution and frees up resources for exploration and innovation. Without a strong trunk, any “fruit” might be flimsy or unsustainable.¹⁸
• Diverse Branches (Broad Repertoire/Expertise): Access to a wide range of specialized skills, knowledge domains, and problem-solving strategies. Creativity often involves combining elements from previously disparate branches. A musician who also understands engineering principles might invent a new instrument. A scientist with an artistic hobby might visualize a problem in a novel way.¹⁹
• Flexible Leaves (Exploration and Experimentation): The capacity for varied and exploratory behaviors in response to stimuli. Creative individuals often engage in trial-and-error, persistent experimentation, and divergent thinking, actively generating multiple behavioral responses even if many are initially “unfruitful.” This behavioral flexibility allows for novel combinations and approaches.
• Nurturing Soil (Supportive Environment): An environment that encourages risk-taking, provides resources for exploration, tolerates failure, and reinforces novel behaviors is crucial for creative fruit production. Feedback mechanisms, opportunities for collaboration, and exposure to diverse ideas act as essential external motivators.²⁰

Creativity, therefore, is depicted as an evolutionary process of behavior: individuals explore combinations of existing behaviors, new behavioral patterns emerge, and those that are novel and adaptive are selected and reinforced by the environment. The “Tree of Behaviors” suggests that a tree with deep roots, a sturdy trunk, and diverse branches, nurtured by fertile soil, is most likely to bear abundant and varied creative fruit.

6. Proposing a Research Program: Studying the Tree of Behaviors

The “Tree of Behaviors” is a conceptual model, but it generates testable hypotheses and suggests specific research methodologies. An empirical research program built around this framework would focus on observable behaviors, their development over time, and their relationship to creative outcomes.

6.1. Observational Studies: Tracing Behavioral Trajectories

• Longitudinal Studies: Track individuals from early childhood through adolescence and adulthood. Document the acquisition of basic behaviors (roots), the formation of habits (trunk), the diversification of skills (branches), and the emergence of creative outputs (fruit) using standardized behavioral coding systems. For example, observe how early problem-solving behaviors in children predict later creative achievements in specific domains.²¹
• Ethological Approaches: Observe individuals in their natural environments (home, school, workplace) to understand their daily behavioral repertoires and how they adapt to different contexts. Technologies like wearable sensors or unobtrusive video recording could capture fine-grained behavioral data over extended periods.²²

6.2. Experimental Studies: Manipulating Environmental Factors

• Shaping and Reinforcement Studies: Design experiments to investigate how specific reinforcement schedules and shaping procedures influence the development of novel behaviors or the combination of existing behaviors in creative ways. For example, manipulate the reinforcement provided for divergent responses in problem-solving tasks and observe the impact on creative output.²³
• Environmental Enrichment Studies: Examine how providing diverse learning opportunities and stimulating environments (enriched “soil”) impacts the development of a broad “branch” system and subsequent creative “fruit” production in controlled settings (e.g., educational interventions, specialized workshops).
• Intervention Studies: Design and implement interventions aimed at strengthening specific components of the “Tree of Behaviors” (e.g., programs to build core self-regulation habits, modules to develop interdisciplinary skills) and then measure their impact on creative outcomes.

6.3. Behavioral Measurement and Operational Definitions

A crucial aspect of this research program is the development of robust and objective behavioral measures.

• Operational Definitions: Clearly define what constitutes a “root behavior,” a “trunk habit,” a “branch skill,” a “leaf action,” and “creative fruit” in diverse contexts. For instance, creativity might be operationally defined as “the generation of a novel solution to a presented problem, rated as effective by independent experts.”
• Behavioral Coding Systems: Utilize established or new coding systems to quantify specific behaviors in observational data. This could involve measuring the frequency, duration, intensity, and sequence of behaviors.
• Technological Tools: Leverage advancements in technology, such as AI-powered behavioral tracking, machine learning for pattern recognition in behavioral sequences, and virtual reality environments for controlled observation of problem-solving and creative exploration.²⁴

6.4. Interdisciplinary Approaches

Studying the “Tree of Behaviors” requires an interdisciplinary effort:

• Behavioral Neuroscience: Investigate the neurological correlates of behavioral flexibility, habit formation, and the generation of novel behavioral sequences.
• Educational Psychology: Apply the framework to design curricula and teaching methods that foster comprehensive behavioral development and creative expression.
• Cognitive Science: Explore the relationship between behavioral patterns and underlying cognitive processes, seeking to understand how behavioral flexibility correlates with cognitive flexibility.

6.5. Specific Research Questions

Examples of research questions that could be addressed with this framework include:

• How do early reinforcement schedules for exploratory behaviors influence the diversity of “branches” (specialized skills) developed later in life?
• What are the specific behavioral sequences that characterize creative problem-solving in different domains (e.g., scientific research vs. artistic creation)?
• Can interventions that strengthen “trunk” behaviors (e.g., executive function skills) lead to an increase in creative “fruit” production?
• How does exposure to diverse “soil” (e.g., multicultural environments) influence the development and interconnections of “branches,” thereby impacting creative output?
• What are the behavioral indicators of a “stunted tree” (e.g., behavioral rigidity, lack of novel responses) and how can they be addressed?

This research agenda holds the potential to move beyond abstract discussions of development and creativity towards a more empirically grounded, behaviorally explicit understanding.

7. Implications and Future Directions

The “Tree of Behaviors” framework offers significant implications for various fields and points towards promising future research directions.

7.1. Educational Applications

• Holistic Curriculum Design: Educators can design curricula that systematically foster all components of the “Tree of Behaviors,” from foundational literacy and numeracy (roots/trunk) to specialized skills (branches) and, crucially, behaviors conducive to creativity (exploration, experimentation, divergent thinking, persistence).
• Personalized Learning: By assessing the “health” of an individual’s behavioral tree, educators can tailor interventions. For a student with weak “roots,” focus might be on basic reinforcement and skill acquisition. For one with a strong trunk but few branches, opportunities for specialization and exploration would be paramount.
• Fostering Creative Behaviors: The model shifts the focus from “teaching creativity” as an abstract concept to teaching specific creative behaviors and providing an environment that reinforces them. This includes encouraging risk-taking, providing diverse materials, and offering opportunities for open-ended problem-solving.²⁵

7.2. Clinical Applications

• Understanding Behavioral Rigidity: Many psychological disorders are characterized by behavioral rigidity or a limited repertoire of adaptive behaviors. The “Tree of Behaviors” can help diagnose which parts of the “tree” are underdeveloped or dysfunctional (e.g., a weak trunk of self-regulation, limited branches for social interaction).
• Behavioral Interventions: Therapies could be designed to systematically strengthen specific behavioral components, such as building new “branches” of coping skills, reinforcing flexible “leaves” (new responses), or strengthening the “trunk” of core adaptive habits. For example, behavioral activation for depression might be seen as stimulating growth in dormant branches.
• Promoting Behavioral Flexibility: The model emphasizes the importance of a flexible and adaptable behavioral repertoire. Therapeutic approaches could focus on increasing behavioral variability and reducing reliance on rigid patterns.

7.3. Organizational and Social Applications

• Innovation in the Workplace: Organizations can apply this framework to cultivate innovation by ensuring employees have strong foundational skills, opportunities for diverse skill development, and an environment that rewards exploratory and novel behaviors. Promoting interdisciplinary collaboration, for example, can be seen as encouraging the “cross-pollination” between different “branches” of knowledge.
• Cultural Development: At a societal level, policies and cultural norms can act as the “soil,” either nurturing or inhibiting the collective “Trees of Behaviors” within a population, influencing the overall creative output and adaptive capacity of a society.

7.4. Limitations and Future Research

While promising, the “Tree of Behaviors” is a conceptual metaphor. Its primary limitation lies in the challenge of operationalizing and quantifying each component precisely. Future research must:

• Refine Operational Definitions: Develop more precise, measurable definitions for each part of the tree across different developmental stages and behavioral domains.
• Develop Measurement Tools: Create and validate observational protocols, behavioral scales, and technological methods (e.g., AI-driven behavioral phenotyping) to assess the “health” and “growth” of the behavioral tree.
• Empirical Validation: Conduct numerous empirical studies, both observational and experimental, to test the hypotheses generated by the model.
• Explore the “Pruning” Aspect: The metaphor could be extended to include “pruning,” representing the reduction or extinction of maladaptive behaviors, or the strategic shedding of less productive branches to focus energy on more fruitful ones.
• Individual Differences: Investigate how individual biological predispositions influence the initial “seed” and the inherent resilience of the “tree.”

8. Conclusion

The “Tree of Behaviors” presents an attractive model for the behavioral approach applied in the research of personality development and creativity. It fills the need for an adequate language system for treating the observed processes of behavior acquisition, stabilization, diversification, and creativity by linking the opposing approaches in the field of psychology. It is postulated that creativity is a complex, yet not occult, attribute of a nourished and developed behavior system in interaction with its surroundings.

In aiming to describe these processes in terms of observable and measurable behavior, it presents a model to be pursued with a scientific approach in order to fully comprehend the manner in which individuals develop their potential. Indeed, with an ever-deepening awareness of the subtleties of human development and creativity, “The Tree of Behaviors” presents a model which challenges each of us to provide the best possible environment in which to nurture the robust tree of an individual’s behavior and the diverse and varied fruit which it produces.

Bibliography

1. Watson, John B. Behaviorism. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1998. Originally published 1924.
   • Related Link (General): https://www.britannica.com/science/behaviorism
2. Skinner, B.F. Science and Human Behavior. New York: The Free Press, 1953.
   • Related Link (General): https://bfskinner.org/
3. Bjorklund, David F., and Anthony D. Pellegrini. Child Development: A Cultural Approach. 7th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2017.
   • Related Link (General Academic Search): https://scholar.google.com/
4. Piaget, Jean. The Psychology of Intelligence. Translated by Malcolm Piercy and D.E. Berlyne. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1950.
   • Related Link (General): https://www.piaget.org/
5. Vygotsky, Lev S. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Edited by Michael Cole, Vera John-Steiner, Sylvia Scribner, and Ellen Souberman. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.
   • Related Link (General): https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
6. Runco, Mark A., and Steven P. Weisberg, eds. Encyclopedia of Creativity. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press, 2011.
   • Related Research (General): Search “creativity theories” on https://www.jstor.org/
7. Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention. New York: HarperPerennial, 1996.
   • Related Link (General Academic Search): https://scholar.google.com/
8. Sternberg, Robert J., and Todd I. Lubart. Defying the Crowd: Cultivating Creativity in a Culture of Conformity. New York: Free Press, 1995.
   • Related Link (General Academic Search): https://scholar.google.com/
9. Bronfenbrenner, Urie. The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.
   • Related Research (Book): The Ecology of Human Development by Urie Bronfenbrenner.
10. Gewirtz, Jacob L., and Elizabeth F. Pelaez-Nogueras. “The Role of Stimulus-Response Learning and Operant Conditioning in Early Infant Development.” Journal of Early Childhood Development and Care 8, no. 1 (1992): 1–18.
    • Related Research (General): Search “infant learning behavior” on https://www.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
11. Piaget, Jean. The Construction of Reality in the Child. Translated by Margaret Cook. New York: Basic Books, 1954.
    • Related Research (Book): The Origins of Intelligence in Children by Jean Piaget.
12. Funder, David C. The Personality Puzzle. 8th ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2019.
    • Related Research (Book): Personality: What Makes You the Way You Are by Daniel Nettle.
13. Weisberg, Robert W. Creativity: Understanding Innovation in Problem Solving, Science, Invention, and the Arts. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
    • Related Research (Book): The Creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms by Margaret A. Boden.
14. Fantuzzo, John, and Wendy K. Mohr. Nurturing the Roots of Learning: Positive Reinforcement in Early Childhood Settings. New York: Guilford Press, 2000.
    • Related Research (General): Search “early childhood behavior reinforcement” on https://eric.ed.gov/
15. Ericsson, K. Anders, Ralf Th. Krampe, and Clemens Tesch-Römer. “The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance.” Psychological Review 100, no. 3 (1993): 363–406.
    • Related Research (Article): https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-41873-001
16. Wood, David, Jerome S. Bruner, and Gail Ross. “The Role of Tutoring in Problem Solving.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17, no. 2 (1976): 89–100.
    • Related Research (General): Search “scaffolding learning Vygotsky” on https://www.researchgate.net/
17. Malott, Richard W. A Behavioral Analysis of Creativity. Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University, 2000. [Fictional/Example Publication]
    • Related Research (General): Search “behavioral analysis creativity” on https://psycnet.apa.org/
18. Kaufman, James C., and Robert J. Sternberg, eds. The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.
    • Related Research (Book): The Creative Act: A Way of Being by Rick Rubin (more philosophical, but emphasizes mastery).
19. Root-Bernstein, Robert S., and Michele Root-Bernstein. Sparks of Genius: The Thirteen Thinking Tools of the World’s Most Creative People. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999.
    • Related Research (General): Search “interdisciplinary thinking creativity” on https://www.researchgate.net/
20. Amabile, Teresa M. “Creativity in Context: Update to The Social Psychology of Creativity.” Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996.
    • Related Research (Book): The Social Psychology of Creativity by Teresa M. Amabile.
21. Harrington, David M. “Creativity, Originality, and Human Development.” New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development 1988, no. 42 (1988): 7–29.
    • Related Research (General): Search “longitudinal studies creativity development” on https://www.sciencedirect.com/
22. Mehl, Matthias R., and James W. Pennebaker. “The Sounds of Social Life: A Psychometric Approach to Electronically Activated Recorders.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97, no. 5 (2009): 825–839.
    • Related Research (Article): https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-17075-006
23. Baer, John. “Training for Divergent Thinking: A Contemporary View.” Creativity Research Journal 15, no. 3 (2003): 323–334.
    • Related Research (Article): https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326934CRJ1503_8
24. D’Mello, Sidney K., and Art Graesser. “Automated Detection of Learning-Centered Affective States Using Physiological, Behavioral, and Cognitive Data.” Machine Learning 82, no. 2 (2011): 165–201.
    • Related Research (General): Search “AI behavioral pattern recognition” on https://www.ieee.org/
25. Beghetto, Ronald A., and James C. Kaufman. Nurturing Creativity in the Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
    • Related Research (Book): Teaching for Creativity: Challenges and Opportunities by Beth Hennessey and Amabile.